Research Methods: Definitions, Philosophies & Foundations

TAKEAWAYS:

• Research is a systematic inquiry to solve problems or answer questions, requiring objectivity, replicability, and ethical rigor—unlike casual observation.
• Philosophical stances (positivism vs. interpretivism) shape how you collect and interpret data (e.g., surveys vs. interviews).
• The 7-step research process (problem → review → design → collect → analyze → interpret → report) is universal but adaptable to qualitative/quantitative work.
• Ethics (informed consent, confidentiality, anonymity) are non-negotiable—violations can invalidate your entire study (e.g., see the Milgram obedience study controversies).
• Cross-cultural research in Nepal requires adapting frameworks to local contexts (e.g., caste, gender norms) to avoid bias.
• A research proposal must include 8 key components (title, background, objectives, methodology, ethics, timeline, budget, references)—examiners check for logical flow and feasibility.

1. What Is Research? Definitions and Types

Research is a structured, systematic, and logical process to answer questions or solve problems. It differs from casual observation by:

• Objectivity: Minimizing personal bias (e.g., not assuming "all Nepali youth are lazy" without data).
• Replicability: Others should be able to repeat your study with similar results.
• Generalizability: Findings should apply beyond your sample (e.g., if you study child labor in Kathmandu, can it reflect Nepal?).

Types of Research

(Note: The site will replace this with a real flowchart image.)

Worked Example: Descriptive vs. Explanatory Research

• Descriptive: "What percentage of Daraz customers in Nepal return their orders?"
  • Method: Survey 1,000 customers.
  • Limitation: Doesn’t explain why returns happen (e.g., poor packaging, miscommunication).
• Explanatory: "Why do 30% of Daraz orders get returned in Nepal?"
  • Method: Interviews with customers + analysis of return reasons (e.g., "item not as described").
  • Insight: Reveals systemic issues (e.g., seller photos vs. actual product).

2. Philosophical Foundations of Research

Your worldview (philosophy) shapes how you conduct research. Three key paradigms:

A. Positivism (Quantitative Approach)

• Belief: Reality is objective and measurable.
• Methods: Experiments, surveys, statistical analysis.
• Example: Measuring the correlation between Ncell data usage and academic performance in Kathmandu.
• Criticism: Ignores subjective experiences (e.g., how students feel about using phones in class).

B. Interpretivism (Qualitative Approach)

• Belief: Reality is socially constructed; focus on meanings and contexts.
• Methods: Interviews, case studies, ethnography.
• Example: Studying how eSewa users in rural Nepal perceive digital financial literacy.
• Criticism: Hard to generalize; subjective interpretations.

C. Pragmatism (Mixed Methods)

• Belief: Use whatever works best for the research question.
• Methods: Combine surveys + interviews.
• Example: Assessing Nepal Police community trust by both surveying citizens and interviewing officers.

mindmap
  root((Philosophical Foundations))
    Positivism
      "Objective reality"
      "Quantitative methods"
      "Example: Survey on *Khalti* adoption rates"
    Interpretivism
      "Subjective meanings"
      "Qualitative methods"
      "Example: Interviews with *Pathao* drivers on job stress"
    Pragmatism
      "Practical solutions"
      "Mixed methods"
      "Example: Evaluating *NTC* customer satisfaction"

Which Philosophy for Social Work?

3. The 7-Step Research Process

Every research project follows a logical sequence. Visualize it as a cycle:

flowchart TD
  A["1. Identify Problem"] --> B["2. Literature Review"]
  B --> C["3. Formulate Hypothesis/Research Questions"]
  C --> D["4. Choose Methodology"]
  D --> E["5. Collect Data"]
  E --> F["6. Analyze Data"]
  F --> G["7. Report Findings"]
  G -->|"Feedback"| A

Step-by-Step Breakdown

1. Identify the Problem

   • Start with a gap in knowledge or a real-world issue.
   • Example: High dropout rates in Social Work programs at TU.
   • How to refine: Ask "Why?" repeatedly (e.g., "Is it lack of scholarships? Poor teaching? Stigma?").

2. Literature Review

   • Review existing studies to avoid reinventing the wheel.
   • Sources: Google Scholar, TU/PU journals, Nepal Journal of Social Work.
   • Example: Before studying eSewa adoption, review papers on digital payments in South Asia.

3. Formulate Hypothesis/Questions

   • Quantitative: Testable hypothesis (e.g., "Students with scholarships have a 20% higher graduation rate.").
   • Qualitative: Open-ended questions (e.g., "What barriers prevent Pathao drivers from joining unions?").

4. Choose Methodology

   • Quantitative: Surveys, experiments (e.g., measuring Ncell call drop rates).
   • Qualitative: Interviews, observations (e.g., studying Kathmandu traffic chaos via participant observation).
   • Mixed: Combine both (e.g., survey Nepal Police officers + interview victims of police brutality).

5. Collect Data

   • Ethics: Informed consent, confidentiality, anonymity.
   • Example: If interviewing Daraz sellers, assure them data will not be shared with the company.

6. Analyze Data

   • Quantitative: SPSS, Excel (e.g., calculate correlation between Khalti usage and income).
   • Qualitative: Thematic analysis (e.g., coding interview transcripts for "fear of digital fraud").

7. Report Findings

   • Structure: Abstract → Introduction → Methodology → Results → Discussion → Conclusion.
   • Example: A report on Nepalgunj slum health might include:
     • Result: 60% lack access to clean water.
     • Discussion: Links to Nepal’s SDG targets.

4. Research Ethics: Why It Matters

Ethics ensure respect for participants and validity of research. Key principles:

• Informed Consent: Participants must know the study’s purpose, risks, and right to withdraw.
  • Example: Before interviewing Pathao drivers, explain: "This study is for academic use; your name won’t be used."
• Confidentiality: Data must be anonymous (e.g., assign codes like "Participant 001" instead of names).
• Anonymity: Even researchers shouldn’t link data to identities.
• Avoiding Harm: No physical/psychological distress (e.g., don’t ask trauma survivors graphic details without support).
• Plagiarism: Always cite sources (e.g., if using Nepal’s Human Development Report, reference it properly).

Common Ethical Violations

5. Cross-Cultural Research in Nepal

Nepal’s diversity (ethnicity, caste, geography) requires adaptive research. Key challenges:

• Language: Nepali vs. Maithili vs. Tharu vs. Newari. Use back-translation (translate → translate back to check accuracy).
• Caste/Gender Norms: Women may refuse male interviewers; Dalits may distrust authority figures.
• Rural-Urban Divide: eSewa adoption in Kathmandu ≠ rural Lamjung.

How to Adapt?

6. The Research Proposal: Structure and Example

A proposal sells your research idea. It must convince examiners/funders of its feasibility and importance.

8 Key Components

Worked Example: Proposal Snippet Title: "Digital Financial Literacy Among eSewa Users in Rural Nepal" Research Question: "How does caste influence eSewa adoption in Makwanpur District?" Methodology:

• Quantitative: Survey 300 users (100 Brahmin, 100 Dalit, 100 Janajati).
• Qualitative: 10 interviews with eSewa agents. Ethics: Participants receive a free eSewa transaction worth NPR 50 as incentive.

In the Real World

1. eSewa’s User Behavior Study

   • Idea Used: Mixed-methods research (quantitative surveys + qualitative interviews).
   • How: eSewa analyzed transaction data (quantitative) to find that Dalit users had lower adoption rates, then interviewed them (qualitative) to discover lack of digital literacy training as the barrier.
   • Outcome: Launched eSewa Academy with free workshops in rural areas.

2. Pathao’s Driver Safety Initiative

   • Idea Used: Cross-cultural research + ethnography.
   • How: Researchers lived with Pathao drivers in Kathmandu for a month, observing their sleep patterns, meal habits, and accident risks. Found that 12-hour shifts without breaks were the root cause.
   • Outcome: Pathao introduced mandatory 30-minute breaks and partnered with NGOs for mental health support.

3. Nepal Police’s Community Trust Survey

   • Idea Used: Positivist approach (surveys) + interpretivist follow-ups (interviews).
   • How: A nationwide survey (quantitative) showed 40% distrust in police among Dalits. Follow-up interviews (qualitative) revealed cases of bribery and caste discrimination.
   • Outcome: Nepal Police launched anti-bias training and a whistleblower hotline.

Exam Tip

• For definitions: Always link theory to Nepal’s context. Example:

  "Positivism assumes an objective reality, which is useful in Nepal for measuring Ncell network coverage—but ignores how rural users perceive service quality."

• For philosophical stances: Compare two paradigms in your answer. Example:

  "While positivism’s structured surveys (e.g., Nepal Living Standards Survey) provide generalizable data, interpretivism’s interviews (e.g., with Pathao drivers) reveal nuanced experiences like ‘fear of police harassment.’"

• For research steps: Use the 7-step cycle as a framework. Example:

  "To study Khalti adoption, I would first review Nepal Rastra Bank reports (Step 2), then survey users in Pokhara (Step 5), and finally analyze themes like ‘trust in digital security’ (Step 6)."

• For ethics: Always mention two principles in your answer. Example:

  "In my study on Daraz returns, I would ensure informed consent (participants know their data is anonymous) and avoid harm (not asking about sensitive financial losses without support)."

• For proposals: Memorize the 8 components and one example per section. Example:

  "The methodology section would outline a mixed approach: quantitative surveys of Nepal Police records (to measure complaint rates) and qualitative interviews with victims (to understand their experiences)."

Final Visual Summary

graph TD
  A["Research Process"] --> B["Philosophies"]
  A --> C["Ethics"]
  A --> D["Cross-Cultural Adaptations"]
  B --> B1["Positivism: Surveys"]
  B --> B2["Interpretivism: Interviews"]
  B --> B3["Pragmatism: Mixed Methods"]
  C --> C1["Consent"]
  C --> C2["Confidentiality"]
  D --> D1["Language"]
  D --> D2["Caste Norms"]
  D --> D3["Pilot Testing"]